Smokers face tax increases, bans, health concerns and social stigma worldwide, but the effect of those on cigarette demand generally is less stark outside the United States.

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He said it would definitely have had a chilling effect on them seeking or continuing treatment because of confidentiality and overcoming the stigma of getting treatment for mental injuries.

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And third, by failing to breast-feed, a mother in many parts of Africa is in effect announcing that she has the virus, and thus exposing herself to both stigma and discrimination.

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