For example, the bright snow- and ice-covered landscapes of Canada and Siberia during winter reflect most solar radiation straight back into space, keeping the surface cold.
Glen Rosen, one of Dr Galaburda's colleagues, and a speaker at the meeting, has created microgyria in rat embryos by holding cold needles to the surface of their developing brains.
The heat exchangers and pipework required to make a 10MW plant already exist, but the 100MW facility will need a pipe that is not only 1km long (in order to reach the cold water at depth) but ten metres in diameter (in order to bring enough of that cold water to the surface).
The researchers believe that as the cold wave moves from the surface, the rock pore space is completely filled in.
"In wintertime, the cliff surface gets so cold that its temperature falls below the freezing point of CO2, which at low pressure goes directly to solid, " said Dr Musselwhite.
The initial "push" upward by the cold front on that balloon filled with surface air is like a child letting a helium-filled balloon go -- it just keeps rising.
The habitable zone is the region of a planetary system which is neither too hot nor too cold - such that water on the surface of a planet will neither evaporate nor freeze, but instead can stay liquid.
BBC: NEWS | Science/Nature | Earth-like planets may be common
"While our results are still very new, our thinking is that the mercury detected by Lamp from the Grail site might be related to an enhancement at the poles caused by mercury atoms generally hopping across the surface and eventually migrating toward the cold polar regions, " said Kurt Retherford, the chief scientist for Lamp.
BBC: Nasa reveals new information about moon probes crash sites
The water was cold and clear, and all around us sunlight was breaking through the surface.
On the surface, relations between the UK and Russia may be better than at any time during the Cold War, but scratch deeper and there is still great uncertainty.
The research, published online Thursday in the journal Science, offers a new perspective below the Martian surface and hints of past flooding at a time when the planet was mostly thought to be cold and desert-like.
Cold ocean water leaks through the rock, hits the red-hot underground lava and bubbles up to the surface.
Absorption is particularly fast in cold water so the Arctic is especially susceptible, and the recent decreases in summer sea ice have exposed more sea surface to atmospheric CO2.
Because cold water releases more CO2 into the air than warm water, the rate at which bottom water rises to the surface has a profound effect on the atmosphere above.
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