qing pen
清笔
以上为机器翻译结果，长、整句建议使用 人工翻译 。
It is concluded that mathematicians formed and calculated mainly by means of written calculation with pen and paper in the Qing Dynasty.
讨论了清代使用的各种计算手段，指出清代数学家在数学研究中采用的计算手段和演算方法主要是笔算。
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