Historian Sheilagh Ogilvie challenges the view that training by European craft guilds from 1560 to 1760 was necessary.

欧洲工艺行会从1560年到1760年间的训练是必要的，对于这一观点，历史学家希拉赫·奥格尔维提出了质疑。

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This mode of craft production favored the growth of self-governing and ideologically egalitarian craft guilds everywhere in the Middle Eastern city.

这种工艺生产模式促进了中东城市自治和意识形态平等的工艺行业的发展。

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GUILDS_DESC; The craft guilds came about by increased specialization of industry.

手工业者行会促进了工业的分工。

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Somewhat more cheering was the failure of a proposal to reinforce the law so that the building of any network whatsoever would be within the craft guilds' reach (a working group of deputies is looking for a compromise).

ECONOMIST: Abacus laws

Germany's craft laws are based on the rules governing medieval guilds.

ECONOMIST: Abacus laws