Norwood is accustomed to going against the conventional wisdom when creating brilliant, new surgical techniques.

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Medical students can now practise surgical techniques on 3D models and animations instead of working on cadavers or dummies.

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Although surgical techniques can sometimes be learned by practising on cadavers, microsurgery requiring careful control of bleeding needs living animals.

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However, Dr Kluger said it was now possible to carry out a wide range of interventions using modern surgical techniques without the need for robots.

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Modern surgical techniques may allow a replacement bladder to be fashioned in some patients, giving back a degree of urinary control, and doctors are constantly improving these.

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The charity is currently funding some Leeds-based research into how artificial hips are worn away during the "swing phase" of walking, which it is hoped will highlight the benefits of different materials, and lead to recommendations to improve surgical techniques or design.

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