Now there is a feeling that continued success will rely more on qualities such as creativity and individual initiative.
This comes in many forms, such as problem-solving creativity, special knowledge and skills, work experience, and willingness to risk investment capital for promising new enterprises.
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Instead, teachers liked traits that ran counter to creativity, such as conformity, sincerity, reliability and unquestioned acceptance of authority.
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Proxy measures of creativity, such as patent awards, the quality of universities, the numbers of films and videos, are all strongly in America's favour.
In other studies as well, creativity has begun to outshine other presumed pillars of leadership such as hard work and even integrity.
The researchers ranked students on a widely used measure called the Torrance Test of Creativity, which involves such tasks as drawing an "interesting and exciting" picture from a curved shape on a sheet of paper, giving the picture a title, and then writing a story about it.
Currently working with the National Science Foundation, Skild will be setting up competitions to drive innovation in several areas of science, such as: teaching science to kids and igniting their scientific creativity, communicating science journalism and creating public understanding between scientists and citizens, and approaching agricultural challenges in the developing world.
He found himself working on such items as cheap clock radios, which gave him little scope for creativity.
Mr Amato needs to foster such creativity if he is to have a chance of surviving for a year as prime minister, let alone lead the centre-left into the next general election.
It was jointly taught by staff from the Judge school and executives from Saatchi and Saatchi, with the idea of breaking down the notion that creativity should be the sole preserve of the so-called "creative industries" such as advertising.
In a test of creativity, researchers asked 145 students to think of as many unusual uses as possible for such common items as a brick or toothpick, then divided them randomly into four groups.
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