Critics sound a warning, however, that long delays are likely in reaching an international agreement on a cryptographic security standard.

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He also has an eye for modern applications, and offers detailed discussion of the relevance of the Riemann hypothesis to cryptographic security as well as an interesting account of its possible links with quantum physics.

ECONOMIST: Mathematics

This security software maintains constant contact with a server that automatically sends antivirus updates, cryptographic information and company-security policies to the device.

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The new protocol also offers enhanced security, by providing a cryptographic means of checking that a particular packet really does come from the machine it claims to.

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The technique exploits the arcana of quantum mechanics to let two computers swap a cryptographic key (and thus the means to decode a message) with perfect security.

ECONOMIST: Optical communications

Rather than having your entire chip be in the same security domain, he says, the most critical things like the management of cryptographic keys or the management of network connections or DRM systems can be isolated in separate transistors on the same chip.

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The secure element doesn't necessarily need to have power running through it or to be in the midst of near-field communication in order to yield up its cryptographic key to a clever intruder who has sufficient time and sufficient desire to breach the security of a smartphone, bank card or national border.

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