Corruption was seen as a key problem by 17% of Spaniards in the government's main "CIS" survey last December, nearly double the rate of the previous month and the highest rate by far since the term "corruption and fraud" was included in the poll 11 years ago.
They included Fernando Collor, a former president forced out in 1992 over corruption allegations, who failed to make a comeback as governor of his home state of Alagoas.
Respondents thought the causes included corporate culture driven by compensation and bonuses (23%), corporate corruption (25%) and conflicts of interest (11%).