The Moon is saturated with craters, caused by billions of years of asteroid bombardment.
FORBES: The Moon is a Natural Platform for Asteroid Mining, Detection and Deflection
The Moon acts like an asteroid magnet and has been aggregating asteroids for billions of years.
FORBES: The Moon is a Natural Platform for Asteroid Mining, Detection and Deflection
This was a radical theory at the time, which predated the concept of the world as billions of years old.
However, its residual thermal energy is enough to sustain heat for billions of years as it slowly dissipates.
Over billions of years of trial and error, nature has devised effective solutions to all sorts of complicated real-world problems.
Starting with such a high speed of rotation, these pulsars continue to emit signals for billions of years before fading out.
Geological processes, such as plate tectonics, erupting volcanoes, advancing glaciers and river networks, have altered Earth's surface over billions of years.
Gill used actual topographic maps of Mars to create a vision of what the planet might have looked like billions of years ago.
These observations will go a long way towards refining what we know about quasars, and what conditions were like in the universe billions of years ago.
FORBES: Hubble Telescope Observes Matter Falling Into Black Hole
And one day, billions of years in the future, astronomers from another world may find similar evidence that enables them to deduce the destruction of Earth.
FORBES: Astronomers Discover A Star That May Have Destroyed Its Own Planet
It will climb the rise, and, as it does so, study rocks that were laid down billions of years ago in the presence of liquid water.
Like the leftover static originating from the big bang billions of years ago that we can still hear on the radio, the residue of the Phillips curve lurks.
Red dwarfs, meanwhile, burn for hundreds of billions of years.
That might help evolutionary biologists answer the question of why, for billions of years, and in every form of life on earth, only two base pairs are used.
Scary stuff for sure, but with the ETA of our demise said to be tens of billions of years in the future, don't go cancelling that pricey TV subscription just yet.
NASA's Spirit and Opportunity rovers, which landed on the Red Planet in 2004, have found plenty of evidence that Mars was far warmer and wetter billions of years ago than it is today.
MSN: Scientists say parts of Mars interior are as wet as Earth's
So it was to everybody's disappointment that Mariner 4, the first space probe to fly past Mars (in 1965), revealed a place with a surface that appeared to have been static for billions of years.
Monster drills would cut a hole a yard or so in diameter down 2.5 miles into the Earth's crust, past the deepest groundwater into granite rock formations that have sat undisturbed for billions of years.
It will study the same kind of supernovae that led to the Nobel prize, in a bid to unravel the "expansion history" of the Universe - when its expansion increased and decreased over billions of years.
And at 84, he still gazes out many billions of light years into the universe to find new quasars.
Although quasars are light days across, they are billions of light years from Earth, which means that most of what scientists know about them comes from extrapolations and not direct evidence.
FORBES: Hubble Telescope Observes Matter Falling Into Black Hole
But those are also the farthest and faintest (because the finite speed of light means that to see objects when they were young means looking at things billions of light years away).
Another is that they have been confirmed time and again by tests that range from minute measurements of bodies circling the solar system to observations of the farthest known light sources, quasars, billions of light years from Earth.
The systematic evaluation of promising methods and attracting skilled teachers into the early years could save billions of pounds and enhance the outcomes of children in future years.
Building more will require billions of dollars, years of planning and regulatory hassles, assuming that investors are willing to bring gas into the volatile U.S. market.
Much of that comes from the supergiant Samotlor field in Siberia, which TNK-BP has spent billions rehabilitating after years of mismanagement under Soviet engineers.
But the mis-steps of the Clinton era are a cautionary lesson for Obama and his successors, because they demonstrate that when it comes to space programs, a few errors can cause billions of dollars in damage and many years of delays.
FORBES: Lessons For Obama In Clinton's Near-Destruction Of The Military Space Program
Already, some companies are predicting that sales of refuelling cartridges could run into the billions within a few years of them coming into the market.
And that could save American consumers tens of billions of dollars just in the first couple of years.
Adding up all his commitments on anti-missile defence, medical entitlements and so on, they amount to hundreds of billions of dollars over ten years.
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