Meanwhile, trains, which carry about a third of all transalpine freight, have to wind their way up and down steep gradients, slowly and fairly lightly laden, to reach the existing St Gotthard railway tunnel, which was opened in 1882.

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Comparison of the glacier meteorology with those in the foothills reveals peculiarities in vertical temperature and precipitation gradients.

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But with a complete chimney, researchers hope to get a better idea of how the entire ecosystem fits together, and how heat and chemical gradients within smokers affect the creatures that live there.

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But HTML has at last evolved into HTML5 (and CSS3), which allow web designers to use custom fonts, gradients, rounded corners and transitions, among other uses.

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In all, 1.1m tonnes of earth and rock were excavated in the construction of the 2010 course, flattening out the harsh gradients of the back nine, and using the aggregate to raise the opening holes above the level of the Usk's flood plain.

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Again, in this challenge to the existing models the Goce gradients appear most pronounced in high latitude and continental regions.

BBC: Europe's Goce satellite probes Earth's gravity