Since the modern times, the modern theory on history in Europe has been broad and profound, and has been characterized by the emphasis of human spirit of civilization.
近代以来，欧洲的史学理论博大精深，且有不断强调人类文明精神的特征。
Toynbee starts from suffering of civilization in his study on history and puts forward the theory of "Challenge and Response."
“挑战与应战”的原理是汤因比文明忧患论的积极发挥。
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