The researchers examined the prevailing inspection system called On-Board Diagnostics II (OBD-II), which tests for excessive carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides, and also checks the power-train systems for problems that might eventually lead to elevated emissions levels.

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Brands that start out with high degrees of loyalty and emotional engagement have something better than high degrees of name awareness, or even high degrees of brand awareness with on-board diagnostics to fall back on.

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