If adaptive evolution unfolds by differential survival of individuals, how can individuals incapable of passing on their genes possibly evolve and persist?
如果适应性进化是由个体的差异性存活而展开的，那么个体为何不能将其可能进化了的基因向下传递并维持下去呢？
The idea that evolution can work by the differential survival of entire groups of organisms, rather than just of individuals, was rejected because it is mathematically implausible.
群体选择理论是说：进化可以通过生命体整个群体的生存能力差异来产生，而不是个体的生存差异。 这一理论之所以被否定是因为从数学上看它不太可信。
The differential and integral equation for survival probability and a upper bound of ruin probability are given by using renewal theory and stochastic process approach.
利用更新理论和随机过程等方法，给出了模型生存概率所满足的微积分方程关系式和破产概率的一个上界估计。
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