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Can the body ingest this particular item and deal with it in a reasonable way and not have internal havoc occur?
营养能否被身体摄取,能否被适当的消化,不导致机体的紊乱
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But then they can also be toxic if taken in too large of amounts because the body does store them.
但如果摄入过量也会中毒,因为机体储存的脂溶性维生素也会过量
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Has only half of the diploid chromosomal content that most of the cells, which are called somatic cells in our body have.
卵子中只含有我们机体一半的染色体,二倍体基因组中一半的染色体,这些二倍体细胞称为体细胞
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The answer lies in "a universal attribute of instinct and perhaps of organic life in general," that "an instinct is an urge inherent in organic life to restore an earlier state of things."
答案就在本能,或者生命机体中“,他说：，“本能就是生命体与生俱来的,想要回到最初状态的驱动力“
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Before B1 begins, you've got the body working, functioning, in its bodily way--respirating, reproducing the cells, and so forth and so on.
在B1之前,你的身体还在运作,正常运作,也就是机体上的呼吸,复制细胞,诸如此类
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As we learned about how humans operate we could start to design machines that would help humans when they weren't functioning properly.
当我们了解了机体如何运作,就可以设计出器械,在人体某些部位功能失常时提供帮助
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If the food environment had evolved very slowly, as it had in earlier human history, the body would have a chance to adapt.
如果食品环境演化很缓慢,像它在人类早期历史时那样,机体就有机会去适应这样的食品环境
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Easiest to find them in embryos but sometimes they can be found in adult organisms as well.
它们在胚胎中最容易被找到,但有时在成人的机体中也能找到
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One, developing ways to understand how humans work better, how human physiology operates, and second, developing new approaches for replacing function in people when they're sick.
一,开发新方法更好的了解身体的运作,以及生理过程是怎样发生的,二,当人机体发生病变时,找到方法替代病变器官的功能
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Calories go in, food gets consumed, the body metabolizes or makes use of those particular nutrients.
热量摄入,食物消耗,机体新陈代谢,即利用那些营养物质
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These are really incredible tools for understanding deep inside the body what's happening.
这些不可思议的仪器,对研究机体内部的活动至关重要
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The topic for this week is cell communication: how mechanisms that cells within a complex organism use to communicate with each other at short distances or long distances.
本周的主题是细胞通讯,即在一个复杂机体中的细胞,采用何种交流机制,在或长或短的距离中相互联系
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This idea that humans have evolved, that physical changes have occurred in humans as a consequence of their food environment, has led us to where we are now.
探讨人与食物的关系,探讨人类机体,由于食物环境而产生的变化,是我们今天坐在这里的原因
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We can even understand it on a molecular or cellular level now.
如今我们已经能从,分子和细胞水平对机体进行研究
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So something about fat is driving people and as I'll explain in a subsequent lecture, What would it be about fat that makes it more reinforcing then protein or carbohydrate?
至于脂肪如何为人们供能,我会在以后的课上解释这点,为什么脂肪比蛋白质或碳水化合物,更能让机体变强
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I just mentioned examples of that, so the organism seeks out fat, sweet, and variety and eating large amounts of food becomes a priority, at least according to the brain.
我仅仅是举了个例子,机体寻求脂肪,糖或其他食物,大量进食成了首要任务,至少大脑是这么认为的
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Because this is not a virus at all, but it's a virus subunit, your body doesn't respond to it as strongly, your immune system doesn't respond to it as strongly.
因为这根本不是病毒,而是一个病毒亚基,机体对其反应不是那么强烈,免疫系统不会产生强烈的应答
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As we've found cells from adult organisms that seem to be multipotential and studied them more carefully, some of their potentials turn out to be lost, they're not exactly the same.
因为我们在成人机体中找到,这些看上去是多能干细胞的细胞后,仔细研究后发现它们的一些潜能已经丢失,和胚胎中的那些并不一样
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So we're going to think about - in the next few weeks we're going to think about the human organism at different levels of magnification and I've shown those levels here.
所以我们讲到,在接下来的几周里,我们将在不同的水平下,研究人类机体,我已经讲过这些水平了
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So if a food belongs to a class of foods that a class of items that contributes to that internal metabolic havoc, would that be reason to consider it a non-food?
如果某种食物,可以引起机体内代谢紊乱,将它们认定为非食品是否合理呢
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Virtually every major anatomical change-- think about that for a minute-- every major anatomical change that has existed in humans can be related in one way or another to how foods are acquired and processed by the human body.
事实上,每个重大的解剖学变化,你们想想,人体的每一个重大解剖学的变化,在某些方面,都和获取食物的方式,以及人类机体如何处理这些食物有关
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I digressed a little from this diagram but I think you've gotten the picture that as I move to more adult organisms, as I move to more specific regions of the brain, for example, I can still find progenitor cells that have some potential.
我不太认同这张图表,不过我认为随着我说到成人机体,你们已经在脑海中有这样的概念了,我在更特异性的区域,比如大脑中,仍能找到有一定潜能的祖细胞
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By taking cells from the skin, for example, or cells from your blood or cells from the bone marrow and keeping them alive in culture, we've been able to study how human cells work and learn a lot about the functioning of human organism.
举例来说,通过从人的皮肤,骨髓,或者血液中提取细胞,并在培养基中培养,就能研究人类细胞是如何工作的,并在一定程度上了解人类机体的功能
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The water soluble vitamins tend to be used more immediately by the body not stored and excreted through the urine if consumed in excess, so the body can tolerate more variation in intake of these before you start getting toxicity than is the case with the vitamins on the right.
而水溶性维生素往往都立刻被身体所利用,不会被机体储藏,过剩部分由尿液排出,因此机体耐受过量水溶性维生素的能力,相比起右边这栏里的脂溶性维生素,可是要强得多了
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And again, we could spend a lot of class time saying, well riboflavin does this for the body and that for the body, but my guess is most of you wouldn't find that so interesting and for those of you who would, the information on it is available elsewhere as I said.
我们可以花很多课堂时间来说,核黄素对机体有这样那样的功用,不过我猜你会感到很无趣的,而对此感兴趣的同学,我说过你也可以从其他途径获得这些信息
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There can be a supply of them, a storehouse of them that can build up in the body, and so day-to-day fluctuations become less of a problem with fat soluble then water soluble vitamins, because the body can go grab them from a storage depot, if you will.
从而在体内建立起一个供应源,一个脂溶性维生素仓库,这样一来,相比起水溶性维生素,脂溶性维生素的浓度不会每天剧烈波动,因为机体可以任意取用体内的储存
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Now, if I was a person that was designing a vaccine and I noticed that this was the response that it got, that antibodies were produced, they reached some intermediate level, they started to fall, I would say, "Well I haven't stimulated the immune system enough, let me re-boost, let me give another dose of antigen."
现在,如果我正在研究一种疫苗,我注意到机体会对这种疫苗产生应答,也就是会产生抗体,当抗体浓度达到中等水平后,就开始下降,就可以说,疫苗对免疫系统刺激还不足,我需要提高抗原浓度,让我再把剂量再加大一倍
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So, every time you're exposed to a new vaccine or a new antigen you go through this primary response before you have the secondary response.
所以,每当你接触到新疫苗或是新抗原,在再次免疫之前,机体将会经历这样的初次免疫过程
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The ones who would seek out calories, the ones who could store and not waste energy, those with an efficient metabolism-- that is those people who took in calories and banked them into their body fat and stored against subsequent famine-- are the ones who would do the best under these circumstances.
那些寻找能量的人,那些储存而不浪费能量的人,那些有着高效代谢系统的人,那些人可以将摄入的热量储存为机体脂肪,以用于对抗即将到来的饥荒,在早先的情况下他们是最适应环境的
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Most of them are of the class IgM; IgM antibodies are produced on first exposure.
其中大部分抗体都属于IgM,IgM在机体首次接触抗原时产生的
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